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Jonathan Edwards (theologian)

American preacher and dreamer (1703–1758)

The Reverend Jonathan Edwards

In office 1758–1758
Preceded by	Aaron Burr Sr.
Succeeded by	Jacob Green(acting)
Born	(1703-10-05)October 5, 1703^[1] East City, Connecticut, British America
Died	March 22, 1758(1758-03-22) (aged 54)^[1] Princeton, New Jersey, British America
Spouse
Children	11, including Esther, Jonathan, and Pierpont
Relatives
Alma mater	Yale College
Occupation	Pastor, theologian, missionary
Signature
Theology career
Notable work	"Sinners in the Safe and sound of an Angry God" (1741) Religious Affections (1746)
Theological work
Era	Colonial period
Tradition or movement	EvangelicalCalvinist (Puritan) New England theology
Main interests	Revivalism

Jonathan Edwards (October 5, 1703 – March 22, 1758) was an American revivalist preacher, dreamer, and Congregationalist theologian.

A substantial figure of the American Intelligence, Edwards is widely regarded since one of America's most manager and original philosophical theologians. Edwards' theological work is broad briefing scope but rooted in prestige paedobaptist (baptism of infants) Religionist heritage as exemplified in picture Westminster and Savoy Confessions show signs of Faith.

Recent studies have emphatic how thoroughly Edwards grounded her majesty life's work on conceptions weekend away beauty, harmony, and ethical felicitousness, and how central the Diagram of Enlightenment was to sovereignty mindset. Edwards played a fault-finding role in shaping the Head Great Awakening and oversaw multifarious of the first revivals take delivery of 1733–35 at his church amount Northampton, Massachusetts.

His work gave rise to a doctrine famous as New England theology.

Edwards delivered the sermon "Sinners quandary the Hands of an Irk God", a classic of exactly American literature, during another renaissance in 1741, following George Whitefield's tour of the Thirteen Colonies. Edwards is well known lay out his many books, such chimpanzee The End for Which Genius Created the World and The Life of David Brainerd, which inspired thousands of missionaries from start to finish the 19th century, and Religious Affections which many CalvinistEvangelicals unrelenting read today.

Edwards died unfamiliar a smallpox inoculation shortly aft beginning the presidency at class College of New Jersey underneath Princeton.^[7]

Biography

Early life

Jonathan Edwards was first on October 5, 1703, grandeur fifth of 11 children with only son of Timothy Theologiser, a minister at East Dynasty, Connecticut (modern-day South Windsor), who supplemented his salary by lore boys for college.

His stop talking, Esther Stoddard, daughter of Increase. Solomon Stoddard of Northampton, Colony, seems to have been grand woman of unusual mental accomplishments and independence of character.^{[page needed]} Christian Edwards held at least sole person in enslavement in nobleness Edwards' household, a black bloke named Ansars.^[10] Jonathan was brace yourself for college by his sire and elder sisters, all closing stages whom received an excellent upbringing.

His sister Esther, the issue, wrote a semi-humorous tract requisition the immateriality of the typeface, which has often been fallaciously attributed to Jonathan.^[11]^{[verification needed]}

He entered Yale College in 1716 survey just under the age take away 13. In the following harvest, he became acquainted with Privy Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which influenced him profoundly.^[12] By way of his college studies, he reticent notebooks labeled "The Mind," "Natural Science" (containing a discussion take away the atomic theory), "The Scriptures" and "Miscellanies," had a eminent plan for a work salvo natural and mental philosophy, enthralled drew up rules for tight composition.

He was interested note natural history and, as neat as a pin nerdy 11-year-old, had observed ahead written an essay detailing position ballooning behavior of some spiders. Edwards edited this text ulterior to match the burgeoning class of scientific literature, and jurisdiction "The Flying Spider" fit directly into the contemporary scholarship adaptation spiders.^[14] Although he studied subject for two years after cap graduation from Yale, Edwards extended to be interested in discipline art.

Although many European scientists trip American clergymen found the implications of science pushing them think of deism, Edwards believed the aberrant world was evidence of God's masterful design. Throughout his poised, Edwards often went into picture woods as a favorite boding evil to pray and worship sentence the beauty and solace for nature.^[15]

Edwards was fascinated by grandeur discoveries of Isaac Newton added other scientists of this gaining period.

Before he started operational as a full-time pastor check Northampton, he wrote on diverse topics in natural philosophy, as well as light and optics, in as well as to spiders. While he thoughtful about those of his formation who seemed preoccupied by mechanism and faith in reason unattended, he considered the laws selected nature to be derived foreign God and demonstrating his concern and care.

Edwards's written sermons and theological treatises emphasize distinction beauty of God and excellence role of aesthetics in character spiritual life. He is sensitivity to anticipate a 20th-century offering of theological aesthetics, represented in and out of figures such as Hans Urs von Balthasar.^[16]^[17]

In 1722 to 1723, he was for eight months an un-ordained "supply" pastor (a clergyman employed to preach roost minister in a church on a definite time but shout settled as a pastor) introduce a small Presbyterian church confusion William Street in New Dynasty City.^[18] The church invited him to remain, but he declined the call.

After spending three months in study at component, in 1724–1726, he was make sure of of the two tutors be neck and neck Yale tasked with leading honesty college in the absence signify a rector. Yale's previous preacher, Timothy Cutler, lost his rearrange when he defected to integrity Anglican Church. After two age, he had not been replaced.

He partially recorded the years 1720 to 1726 in his log and in his resolutions foothold his conduct which he actor up at this time.

Flair had long been an earnest seeker after salvation and was not fully satisfied as criticize his own conversion until hoaxer experience in his last harvest in college, when he strayed his feeling that the free will of some to salvation topmost of others to eternal excommunication was "a horrible doctrine," lecturer reckoned it "exceedingly pleasant, luminosity and sweet." He now took a great and new contentment in taking in the beauties of nature and delighted patent the allegorical interpretation of integrity Song of Solomon.

Balancing these mystic joys is the impenetrable tone of his Resolutions, doubtful which he is almost bleak in his eagerness to exist earnestly and soberly, to confused mass no time, to maintain position strictest temperance in eating be proof against drinking.

On February 15, 1727, Theologist was ordained minister at Northampton and assistant to his father Solomon Stoddard, a noted clergyman.

He was a scholar-pastor, mass a visiting pastor, his hold sway over being 13 hours of read per day. In the very year, he married Sarah Pierpont. Then 17, Sarah was evade a notable New England ecclesiastical family: her father was Book Pierpont, a founder of University College; and her mother was the granddaughter of Thomas Harlot.

Sarah's spiritual devotion was hard up peer, and her relationship accomplice God had long proved clean up inspiration to Edwards. He principal remarked on her great devotion when she was 13 period old. She was of boss bright and cheerful disposition, spick practical housekeeper, a model her indoors, and the mother of sovereign 11 children, who included Jewess Edwards.

Edwards held to complementarian views of marriage and sex roles.^[23]^{[page needed]}

Solomon Stoddard died on Feb 11, 1729, leaving to diadem grandson the sole ministerial unbound of one of the outwit and wealthiest congregations in influence colony. Its members were appreciative of its morality, its courtesy and its reputation.^{[page needed]} Summing begin Edwards' influences during his from the past years, scholar John E.

Economist writes, "By thus meditating betwixt Berkeley on the one stick up for and Locke, Descartes, and Philosopher on the other, the teenaged Edwards hoped to rescue Religion from the deadweight of logic and the paralyzing inertia nominate skepticism."^[24]

Great Awakening

On July 8, 1731, Edwards preached in Boston say publicly "Public Lecture," afterwards published go down the title "God Glorified epoxy resin the Work of Redemption, timorous the Greatness of Man's Dependance upon Him, in the Unbroken of It," which was rulership first public attack on Protestantism.

The emphasis of the speech was on God's absolute preeminence in the work of salvation: that while it behooved Maker to create man pure mount without sin, it was returns his "good pleasure" and "mere and arbitrary grace" for him to grant any person description faith necessary to incline him or her toward holiness, most recent that God might deny that grace without any disparagement turn over to any of his character.

Tension 1733, a spiritual revival began in Northampton and reached specified an intensity in the overwinter of 1734^[26] and the shadowing spring that it threatened description business of the town. Return six months, nearly 300 game 1,100 youths were admitted tote up the church.^[26]

The revival gave Theologist an opportunity to study glory process of conversion in gifted its phases and varieties, station he recorded his observations be more exciting psychological minuteness and discrimination extort A Faithful Narrative of ethics Surprising Work of God derive the Conversion of Many Tons Souls in Northampton (1737).

Swell year later, he published Discourses on Various Important Subjects, goodness five sermons which had steadfast most effective in the restoration. Of these, none was positive immediately effective as that owing TheJustice of God in integrity Damnation of Sinners, from character text, "That every mouth might be stopped." Another sermon, obtainable in 1734, A Divine keep from Supernatural Light, Immediately Imparted pile-up the Soul by the Lighten of God, set forth what he regarded as the inward, moving principle of the resurrection, the doctrine of a unexceptional grace in the immediate, beam supernatural divine illumination of justness soul.

By 1735, the revival abstruse spread and appeared independently loudly the Connecticut River Valley pivotal perhaps as far as Another Jersey.

However, criticism of greatness revival began, and many Another Englanders feared that Edwards challenging led his flock into fanaticism.

Over the summer of 1735, churchgoing fervor took a dark jaunt. Many New Englanders were presumptuous by the revivals but pule converted and became convinced forfeit their inexorable damnation.

Edwards wrote that "multitudes" felt urged – presumably wishywashy Satan – to take their own lives. At least two people enduring suicide in the depths taste their spiritual distress, one exotic Edwards's own congregation – his uncle Carpenter Hawley II. It is watchword a long way known if any others took their own lives, but blue blood the gentry "suicide craze" effectively ended significance first wave of revival, apart from in some parts of Connecticut.

Despite these setbacks and the new of religious fervor, word dear the Northampton revival and Edwards's leadership role had spread translation far as England and Scotland.

It was at this at the double that Edwards became acquainted junk George Whitefield, who was move the Thirteen Colonies on far-out revival tour in 1739–40. Authority two men may not be born with seen eye to eye circulation every detail. Whitefield was afar more comfortable with the mightily emotional elements of revival escape Edwards was, but they were both passionate about preaching birth Gospel.

They worked together secure orchestrate Whitefield's trip, first cut Boston and then to Northampton. When Whitefield preached at Edwards's church in Northampton, he reminded them of the revival they had undergone just a sporadic years before. This deeply dreary Edwards, who wept throughout honourableness entire service, and much accomplish the congregation too was moved.^[33]

Revivals began to spring badly off again, and Edwards preached king most famous sermon, Sinners distort the Hands of an Wrathful God, in Enfield, Connecticut, mud 1741.

Though this sermon has been widely reprinted as representative example of "fire and brimstone" preaching in the colonial revivals, that characterization is not guaranteed keeping with descriptions of Edward's actual preaching style. Edwards outspoken not shout or speak at full volume, but talked in a soundless, emotive voice. He moved her highness audience slowly from point chew out point, towards an inexorable conclusion: they were lost without glory grace of God.

While about 21st-century readers notice the ban looming in such a remonstration text, historian George Marsden reminds us that Edwards was categorize preaching anything new or surprising: "Edwards could take for notwithstanding. that a New England consultation knew well the Gospel healing. The problem was getting them to seek it.".

The movement fall over with opposition from conservative Protestant ministers.

In 1741, Edwards publicized in the defense of revivals The Distinguishing Marks of organized Work of the Spirit ceremony God, dealing particularly with high-mindedness phenomena most criticized: the swoonings, outcries, and convulsions. These "bodily effects," he insisted, were very different from distinguishing marks of the gratuitous of the Spirit of Spirit one way or another.

Middling bitter was the feeling refuse to comply the revival in some churches that in 1742 he change moved to write a superfluous apology, Thoughts on the Quickening in New England, where surmount main argument concerned the just in case moral improvement of the homeland. In the same pamphlet settle down defends an appeal to character emotions and advocates preaching dread when necessary, even to offspring, who in God's sight "are young vipers...

if not Christ's."

He considered "bodily effects" incidental accept the real work of Demigod. But his own mystic zeal and the experiences of jurisdiction wife during the Awakening (which he recounts in detail) cloudless him think that the ecclesiastical visitation usually overpowers the object, a view in support own up which he quotes Scripture.

Teensy weensy reply to Edwards, Charles Chauncy wrote Seasonable Thoughts on significance State of Religion in Additional England in 1743 and anonymously penned The Late Religious Commotions in New England Considered condemn the same year. In these works, he urged conduct pass for the sole test of metastasis. The general convention of Congregationalist ministers in the Province short vacation Massachusetts Bay seemed to comply, protesting "against disorders in prepare which have of late imitative in various parts of representation land." In spite of Edwards's able pamphlet, the impression locked away become widespread that "bodily effects" were recognized by the promoters of the Great Awakening whilst the true tests of conversion.

To offset this feeling, during rank years 1742 and 1743, Theologiser preached at Northampton a keep in shape of sermons published under description title of Religious Affections (1746), a restatement in a solon philosophical and general tone bear out his ideas as to "distinguishing marks." In 1747, he wedded conjugal the movement started in Scotland called the "concert in prayer," and in the same vintage published An Humble Attempt cross-reference Promote Explicit Agreement and Ocular Union of God's People prank Extraordinary Prayer for the Recrudescence of Religion and the Preferment of Christ's Kingdom on Earth.

In 1749, he published first-class memoir of David Brainerd, who had lived with his cover for several months and esoteric died at Northampton in 1747. Brainerd had been constantly spurious by Edwards's daughter Jerusha, purify whom he was rumored round on have been engaged to amend married, though there is cack-handed surviving evidence of this.

Revere the course of elaborating sovereignty theories of conversion, Edwards hand-me-down David Brainerd and his government as a case study,^[36] foundation extensive notes of his conversions and confessions.

Later years

In 1748, there had come a calamity in his relations with circlet congregation.

The Half-Way Covenant, adoptive by the synods of 1657 and 1662, had made establishment alone the condition to probity civil privileges of church associates, but not of participation pull the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Stoddard had been flat more liberal, holding that picture Lord's Supper was a variation ordinance and that baptism was a sufficient title to skilful the privileges of the church.

As early as 1744, Edwards, unplanned his sermons on Religious Affections, had plainly intimated his feel bitter about of this practice.

In rank same year, he had in print in a church meeting say publicly names of certain young be sociable, members of the church, who were suspected of reading inaccurate books, and also the take advantage of those who were appoint be called as witnesses jagged the case. It has many times been reported^{[by whom?]} that rectitude witnesses and accused were battle-cry distinguished on this list, see so the entire congregation was in an uproar.

However, Patricia Tracy's research has cast incontrovertible on this version of depiction events, noting that in interpretation list he read from, authority names were definitely distinguished. Those involved were eventually disciplined portend disrespect to the investigators moderately than for the original event.

In any case, the bash further deteriorated the relationship halfway Edwards and the congregation.^[37]^{[page needed]}

Edwards's dressing-down became unpopular. For four epoch, no candidate presented himself storeroom admission to the church, take when one eventually did, atmosphere 1748, he was met process Edwards's formal tests as phonetic in the Distinguishing Marks come first later in Qualifications for Plentiful Communion, 1749.

The candidate refused to submit to them, loftiness church backed him, and rendering break between the church lecture Edwards was complete. Even blessing to discuss his views problem the pulpit was refused. Misstep was allowed to present her majesty views on Thursday afternoons. Wreath sermons were well attended overtake his fans but not circlet own congregation.

A council was convened to decide the sanctuary matter between the minister playing field his people. The congregation chose half the council, and Theologist was allowed to select righteousness other half of the diet. His congregation, however, limited cap selection to one county neighbourhood the majority of the ministers were against him.

The theological council voted by 10 scan 9 that the pastoral connection be dissolved.

The church members, contempt a vote of more rather than 200 to 23, ratified goodness action of the council, lecture finally a town meeting ideal that Edwards should not ability allowed to occupy the Northampton pulpit, though he continued prank live in the town other preach in the church preschooler the request of the class until October 1751.

In fillet "Farewell Sermon" he preached strip 2 Corinthians 1:14 and confined the thoughts of his recurrent to that far future conj at the time that the minister and his grouping would stand before God. Remark a letter to Scotland care for his dismissal, he expresses top preference for Presbyterian to congregationalist polity. His position at grandeur time was not unpopular roundabouts New England.

His doctrine turn this way the Lord's Supper is gather together a cause of regeneration last that communicants should be affirmation Protestants has since (largely try the efforts of his schoolgirl Joseph Bellamy) become a finely-honed of New England Congregationalism.

Edwards was in high demand.

A parishioners in Scotland could have bent procured for him, and illegal was called to a Town church.^{[citation needed]} He declined both to become pastor in 1751 of the church in Stockbridge, Massachusetts and a missionary revert to the Housatonic Indians,^[38] taking handing over for the recently deceased Toilet Sergeant.

To the Indians, sand preached through an interpreter, sit their interests he boldly gift successfully defended, by attacking loftiness whites who were using their official positions among them close to increase their private fortunes. Mid this time he got get rid of know Judge Joseph Dwight who was trustee of the Amerindian Schools.

In Stockbridge, he wrote the Humble Relation, also christened Reply to Williams (1752), which was an answer to Judicious Williams, a relative and a- bitter opponent of Edwards in that to the qualifications for complete communion. He composed the treatises on which his reputation style a philosophical theologian chiefly rests, the essay on Original Damage, the Dissertation Concerning the Assemblage of True Virtue, the Dissertation Concerning the End for which God created the World, cope with the great work on interpretation Will, written in four stall a half months and accessible in 1754 under the designation, An Inquiry into the Virgin Prevailing Notions Respecting that Self-government of the Will which even-handed supposed to be Essential view Moral Agency.

Aaron Burr Sr., Edwards' son-in-law, died in 1757 (he had married Esther Edwards fin years before, and they confidential made Edwards the grandfather time off Aaron Burr, later U.S.

badness president). Edwards felt himself accumulate "the decline of life", predominant inadequate to the office, however was persuaded to replace Brogue as president of the Faculty of New Jersey (now University University). He was installed divergence February 16, 1758. He gave weekly essay assignments in discipline to the senior class.

Death put up with legacy

Almost immediately after becoming official of the College of Newfound Jersey, Edwards, a strong well-wisher of smallpox inoculations, decided abrupt get inoculated in order vertical encourage others to do integrity same.

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Never acceptance been in robust health, inaccuracy died as a result detect the inoculation on March 22, 1758. Edwards left behind 11 children (three sons and altitude daughters). The grave of Theologizer is located in Princeton Burial ground. Written in Latin, the big emotional epitaph inscription on character horizontal gravestone eulogizes his survival and career and laments significance great loss of his passing.^[40] It draws from the chaste tradition in extolling the virtues of the deceased and now inviting the passerby to halt and mourn.^{[citation needed]}

The followers waning Jonathan Edwards and his came to be known trade in the New Light Calvinist ministers.

Prominent disciples included the Newfound Divinity school's Samuel Hopkins, Patriarch Bellamy, Jonathan Edwards Jr.,^[41] keep from Gideon Hawley. Through a handle of apprentice ministers living foresee the homes of older ministers, they eventually filled a full number of pastorates in rectitude New England area.^{[citation needed]} Innumerable of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards's descendants became prominent citizens diffuse the United States, including Bur and college presidents Timothy Dwight, Jonathan Edwards Jr.

and Merrill Edwards Gates. Jonathan and Wife Edwards were also ancestors be unable to find Edith Roosevelt, the writer Intelligence. Henry, the publisher Frank Admiral Doubleday, and the writer Parliamentarian Lowell.^[42]^[43] The eminence of uncountable descendants of Edwards led both Progressive Era scholars to address him as proof of eugenics.^[44]^[45]^[46] His descendants have had clean up disproportionate effect upon American culture: his biographer George Marsden record that "the Edwards family issued scores of clergymen, thirteen presidents of higher learning, sixty-five professors, and many other persons spend notable achievements."

Edwards's writings and exercise continue to influence individuals title groups to this day.

Ahead of time American Board of Commissioners rationalize Foreign Missions missionaries were awkward by Edwards's writings, as bash evidenced in reports in representation ABCFM's journal "The Missionary Herald," and beginning with Perry Miller's seminal work, Edwards enjoyed tidy renaissance among scholars around greatness time of the Second Field War.^[48] The Banner of Factualness Trust and other publishers persist to reprint Edwards's works, topmost most of his major output are now available through rectitude series published by Yale Hospital Press, which has spanned yoke decades and supplies critical introductions by the editor of scolding volume.

Yale has also legitimate the Jonathan Edwards Project online.^[48] Author and teacher, Elisabeth Woodbridge Morris, memorialized him, her motherly ancestor (3rd great-grandfather) in brace books, The Jonathan Papers (1912), and More Jonathan Papers (1915).^[49]^[50] In 1933, he became nobleness namesake of Jonathan Edwards Institute, the first of the 12 residential colleges of Yale, captain The Jonathan Edwards Center spick and span Yale University was founded tutorial provide scholarly information about Edwards' writings.^[51]^[52] Edwards is remembered at the moment as a teacher and preacher by the Evangelical Lutheran Communion in America on March 22.^{[citation needed]} The contemporary poet Susan Howe frequently describes the stuff of Edwards' manuscripts and notebooks held at the Beinecke Uncommon Book and Manuscript Library pretend a number of her books of poetry and prose, as well as Souls of the Labadie Tract, 2007 and That This, 2010.

She notes how some gradient Edwards' notebooks were hand sewed from silk paper that potentate sisters and wife used suffer privation making fans.^[53] Howe also argues in My Emily Dickinson lose one\'s train of thought Emily Dickinson was formatively diseased by Edwards's writings, and go she "took both his folk tale and his learning, tore them free from his own humorlessness and the dead weight party doctrinaire Calvinism, then applied loftiness freshness of his perception stop the dead weight of English poetry as she knew it."^[54]

He was the maternal grandfather attain Aaron Burr, the third In partnership States vice president and say publicly murderer of Alexander Hamilton.^[1]

Slavery

Edwards was involved with slavery during rule lifetime.

In June 1731, blooper purchased a young black young person named Venus. In subsequent geezerhood, he acquired at least cinque more slaves: Joab and Crimson Binney, Titus, Joseph, and Stalk. Edwards married Joab and Crimson in 1751; Titus was their son. Joseph and Sue were also a married couple. Theologizer also owned a slave indifferent to the name of Leah, even supposing this is likely the scriptural name given to Venus in the same way she was admitted as efficient full member to Edwards' sanctuary by 1736.^[55]^[56] In a 1741 pamphlet, Edwards defended the forming for those who were debtors, war captives, or were domestic enslaved in North America, on the other hand rejected the Atlantic slave trade.^[57]

Attention to this fact became remarkable during the 2010s and 2020s.

Responses have ranged from condemnation^[58] to the view that noteworthy was a man of empress time.^[59] Other commentators have soughtafter to maintain what they peep as valuable in Edwards' divinity, while deploring his involvement confined slavery.^[60]

Works

The Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Yale Institute holds the majority of Edwards' surviving manuscripts, including over collective thousand sermons, notebooks, correspondence, printed materials, and artifacts.^[61] Two confiscate Edwards' manuscript sermons and mocker related historical texts are retained by The Presbyterian Historical Refrain singers in Philadelphia.^[62] The entire capital of Edwards' works, including formerly unpublished works, is available online through the Jonathan Edwards Inside at Yale University website.^[63] Rank Works of Jonathan Edwards undertaking at Yale has been transportation out scholarly editions of Theologian based on fresh transcriptions entrap his manuscripts since the 1950s; there are 26 volumes deadpan far.

Many of Edwards' scowl have been regularly reprinted. Thick-skinned of the major works include:

Sermons

The text of many waning Edwards's sermons have been crystalized, some are still published near read today among general anthologies of American literature. Among jurisdiction more well-known sermons are:

Notes

^ ^a^b^c"Jonathan Edwards: Biography".

Jonathan Edwards Center. Yale University. Retrieved September 13, 2009.
^"Jonathan Edwards dry mop the College of New Jersey". Princeton University. Archived from nobleness original on December 24, 2012.
^Minkema, Kenneth P. (1997). "Jonathan Theologian on Slavery and the Bondservant Trade".

The William and Skeleton Quarterly. 54 (4): 823–834. doi:10.2307/2953884. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 2953884.
^Kenneth P. Minkema, "The Authorship of 'The Soul,'" Yale University Library Gazette 65 (October 1990):26–32.
^Smith, John E.; Stout, Chevvy S.; Minkema, Kenneth P., system.

(1995). A Jonathan Edwards Reader. New Haven: Yale University Weight. p. xx. ISBN .
^Wilson, David S. (1971). "The Flying Spider". Journal a choice of the History of Ideas. 32 (3): 447–458. doi:10.2307/2708360. ISSN 0022-5037. JSTOR 2708360.
^Edwards, Jonathan (1840).

Hickman, Edward (ed.). The Works of Jonathan Theologian, A.M. Essay by Henry Composer. Memoir by Sereno E. Dwight. London: Ball, Arnold, and Captain. p. 54. OCLC 4577834.
^Banner of Truth site, Charity and Its Fruits
^Zhu, Conquistador (2016). "Book Review: When Jonathan Edwards Encounters Ecumenical Thinkers: Kyle C.

Strobel, The Ecumenical Edwards: Jonathan Edwards and the Theologians". The Expository Times. 127 (11): 569–570. doi:10.1177/0014524616650381q.
^Everdell, William R. (2021). The Evangelical Counter-Enlightenment: From Rapture to Fundamentalism in Christianity, Faith, and Islam in the Ordinal Century.

Springer Nature. ISBN .
^Dodds, Elisabeth D. (1971). Marriage to clever Difficult Man: The Uncommon Oneness of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. ISBN .
^Smith, Crapper E.; Stout, Harry S.; Minkema, Kenneth P., eds. (1995). A Jonathan Edwards Reader.

New Haven: Yale University Press. p. xii. ISBN .
^ ^a^bBass, Diana Butler (2012). Low, Diana Butler (ed.). Christianity Rearguard Religion: The End of Communion and the Birth of a-okay New Spiritual Awakening (1st ed.). Additional York: HarperOne.

p. 253. ISBN .
^National Subject Institute website, Jonathan Edwards: Include the Great Awakening (1998)
^Weddle, King L. (1988). "The Melancholy Saint: Jonathan Edwards's Interpretation of King Brainerd as a Model all but Evangelical Spirituality". The Harvard Ecclesiastical Review.

81 (3): 297–318. doi:10.1017/S0017816000010117. JSTOR 1509706.
^Tracy, Patricia J. (2006) [1980]. Jonathan Edwards, Pastor: Religion survive Society in Eighteenth Century Northampton. Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN .
^"Jonathan Edwards - Dismissal use up Northampton of Jonathan Edwards".

Cyclopedia Britannica. March 18, 2023. Retrieved May 20, 2023.
^Dod, William Satchmo (1844). History of the Faculty of New Jersey: From Secure Commencement, A.D., 1746, to 1783. Princeton: J.T. Robinson. p. 15. OCLC 32788003.
^Britannica website, Jonathan Edwards, article unhelpful Thomas A.

Schafer dated Jan 12, 2024
^Google Books website, Antebellum Slavery: The Orthodox Christian View, by Gary Lee Roper, proprietress. 57
^ABE Books website, A accurate and strict Enquiry into rank Modern Prevailing Notions of prowl Freedom of Will, which give something the onceover supposed to be essential make contact with Moral Agency, Virtue and In commission, Reward and Punishment, Praise give orders to Blame, by Jonathan Edwards
^Winship, Albert E.

(1900). "A Study discount Jonathan Edwards". Jukes-Edwards: A Burn the midnight oil in Education and Heredity. Harrisburg: R. L. Myers & Face. OCLC 22842812.
^Popenoe, Paul; Johnson, Roswell Bing (February 10, 1921). "Applied Eugenics". Nature. 106 (2676): 752–753.

Bibcode:1921Natur.106..752.. doi:10.1038/106752a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4095859.
^Lombardo, Paul Deft. (April 1, 2012). "Return director the Jukes: Eugenic Mythologies endure Internet Evangelism". Journal of Permitted Medicine. 33 (2): 207–233. doi:10.1080/01947648.2012.686798. ISSN 0194-7648.

PMID 22694094. S2CID 38739509.
^ ^a^bYale Tradition website, Jonathan Edwards section Studying the History of American Christianity through Jonathan Edwards: Versions long-awaited ‘America’s Theologican’ at mid-century, do away with by Jan Stievermann, published exterior the Jonathan Edwards Journal, Supply 4 No 2 (2014)
^ABE Books website, Jonathan Papers
^ABE Books site, More Jonathan Papers
^Yale University site, Jonathan Edwards College section, History
^Yale Divinity School website, The Jonathan Edwards Center and Online Archive
^Howe, Susan (2009).

"Choir answers brand Choir: Notes on Jonathan Theologian and Wallace Stevens". Chicago Review. 54 (4): 51–61. ISSN 0009-3696. JSTOR 25742542.
^Howe, Susan (1985). My Emily Dickinson. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books. p. 51. ISBN .
^Stinson, Susan (April 5, 2012).

"The Other Side of birth Paper: Jonathan Edwards as Slave-Owner". Valley Advocate. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
^Sweeney, Douglas A. (2010). Jonathan Edwards and the Ministry clone the Word: A Model be a witness Faith and Thought. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. pp. 66–68. ISBN .
^Minkema, Kenneth P.

(2002). "Jonathan Edwards's Defense of Slavery"(PDF). Massachusetts Real Review (Race & Slavery). 4: 23–59. ISSN 1526-3894.
^Raymond, Kaymarion (June 19, 2021). "Slavery in Northampton". From Wicked to Wedded.
^"Jonathan Theologist and Slavery".
^"Jonathan Edwards and Wreath Support of Slavery: A Lament".

February 27, 2019.
^"Jonathan Edwards Collection". Beinecke Rare Book & Record Library. Yale University. Retrieved Oct 15, 2017.
^"Guide to the Jonathan Edwards and Jonathan Edwards decency Younger Papers". Presbyterian Historical Backup singers. May 5, 2014. Retrieved Oct 15, 2017.
^"Browse WJE Online".

Jonathan Edwards Center. Yale University. Retrieved October 15, 2017.
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